Environmental Change and Sustainable Development in the Romanian Carpathians

ルーマニアのカルパチア山地において，近年の環境変化は気候変化で説明されてきたが，人間活動の影響も大きいとみなされる．カルパチア山地の約1,000ｍ～2,500ｍの地域では，1960年代から2000年に気温は上昇傾向にあり，降水量は減少傾向にある．同一期間にルーマニア南部は乾燥化し，ルーマニアの平原やモルダビアでは，灌漑用水が不足した．カルパチア山地では高木限界が上昇した．また，氷河の圏谷の急斜面では雪崩が多発し，冬スポーツの施設が破壊された．岩屑流は30ｍｍ/24ｈの強雨のとき多発し，災害を大にしている．降水量は減っているが，豪雨が増えている．また，突然の融雪が山地地域の大洪水を発生させている．これらは，森林破壊が各地で起きていることに起因する．特に地すべりや泥流，ガリーはカルパチア山地の南東で多発している．ルーマニアの農務省は山頂や丘陵頂部における家畜の過放牧や薪炭，鉱山開発による荒廃に対しての持続的発展のために，エコツーリズムを打ち出している．カルパチアはWWF“Global 200”に選ばれ，動植物の保護にも努力しようとしている

Environmental and socioeconomic assessment of impacts by mining activities—a case study in the Certej River catchment, Western Carpathians, Romania

Background, aim and scope: In the region of the Apuseni Mountains, part of the Western Carpathians in Romania, metal mining activities have a long-standing tradition. These mining industries created a clearly beneficial economic development in the region. But their activities also caused impairments to the environment, such as acid mine drainage (AMD) resulting in long-lasting heavy metal pollution of waters and sediments. The study, established in the context of the ESTROM programme, investigated the impact of metal mining activities both from environmental and socioeconomic perspectives and tried to incorporate the results of the two approaches into an integrated proposition for mitigation of mining-related issues. Study site: The small Certej catchment, situated in the Southern Apuseni Mountains, covers an area of 78km2. About 4,500 inhabitants are living in the basin, in which metal mining was the main economic sector. An open pit and several abandoned underground mines are producing heavy metal-loaded acidic water that is discharged untreated into the main river. The solid wastes of mineral processing plants were deposited in several dumps and tailings impoundment embodying the acidic water-producing mineral pyrite. Methods: The natural science team collected samples from surface waters, drinking water from dug wells and from groundwater. Filtered and total heavy metals, both after enrichment, and major cations were analysed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Major anions in waters, measured by ion chromatography, alkalinity and acidity were determined by titration. Solid samples were taken from river sediments and from the largest tailings dam. The latter were characterised by X-ray fluorescence and X-ray diffraction. Heavy metals in sediments were analysed after digestion. Simultaneously, the socioeconomic team performed a household survey to evaluate the perception of people related to the river and drinking water pollution by way of a logistic regression analysis. Results and discussion: The inputs of acid mine waters drastically increased filtered heavy metal concentrations in the Certej River, e.g. Zn up to 130mg L−1, Fe 100mg L−1, Cu 2.9mg L−1, Cd 1.4mgL−1 as well as those of SO4 up to 2.2g L−1. In addition, river water became acidic with pH values of pH 3. Concentrations of pollutant decreased slightly downstream due to dilution by waters from tributaries. Metal concentrations measured at headwater stations reflect background values. They fell in the range of the environmental quality standards proposed in the EU Water Framework Directive for dissolved heavy metals. The outflow of the large tailing impoundment and the groundwater downstream from two tailings dams exhibited the first sign of AMD, but they still had alkalinity. Most dug wells analysed delivered a drinking water that exhibited no sign of AMD pollution, although these wells were a distance of 7 to 25m from the contaminated river. It seems that the Certej River does not infiltrate significantly into the groundwater. Pyrite was identified as the main sulphide mineral in the tailings dam that produces acidity and with calcite representing the AMD-neutralising mineral. The acid-base accounting proved that the potential acid-neutralising capacity in the solid phases would not be sufficient to prevent the production of acidic water in the future. Therefore, the open pits and mine waste deposits have to be seen as the sources for AMD at the present time, with a high long-term potential to produce even more AMD in the future. The socioeconomic study showed that mining provided the major source of income. Over 45% of the households were partly or completely reliant on financial compensations as a result of mine closure. Unemployment was considered by the majority of the interviewed persons as the main cause of social problems in the area. The estimation of the explanatory factors by the logistic regression analysis revealed that education, household income, pollution conditions during the last years and familiarity with environmental problems were the main predictors influencing peoples' opinion concerning whether the main river is strongly polluted. This model enabled one to predict correctly 77% of the observations reported. For the drinking water quality model, three predictors were relevant and they explained 66% of the observations. Conclusions: Coupling the findings from the natural science and socioeconomic approaches, we may conclude that the impact of mining on the Certej River water is high, while drinking water in wells is not significantly affected. The perceptions of the respondents to pollution were to a large extent consistent with the measured results. Recommendations and perspectives: The results of the study can be used by various stakeholders, mainly the mining company and local municipalities, in order to integrate them in their post-mining measures, thereby making them aware of the potential long-term impact of mining on the environment and on human health as well as on the local econom

Irrigation Water Use in the Danube Basin: Facts, Governance and Approach to Sustainability

In this paper we assess the irrigation water use in the Danube Basin, highlight its complexity, identify future challenges and show the relevance for a basin-wide integrative irrigation management plan as part of a more holistic and coherent resource policy. In this sense, we base our integrative regional assessments of the water-food-energy nexus on insights from an extensive review and scientific synthesis of the Danube Basin and region, experimental field studies on irrigation and agricultural water consumption, current irrigation related policies and strategies in most of the Danube countries, and regulatory frameworks on resources at European Union level. We show that a basin-wide integrative approach to water use calls for the evaluation of resource use trade-offs, resonates with the need for transdisciplinary research in addressing nexus challenges and supports integrative resource management policies within which irrigation water use represents an inherent part. In this respect, we propose a transdisciplinary research framework on sustainable irrigation water use in the Danube Basin. The findings were summarized into four interconnected problem areas in the Danube Basin, which directly or indirectly relate to irrigation strategies and resource policies: prospective water scarcity and Danube water connectedness, agricultural droughts, present and future level of potential yields, and science based proactive decision-making

Sulfide oxidation and acid mine drainage formation within two active tailings impoundments in the Golden Quadrangle of the Apuseni Mountains, Romania

Sulfidic mine tailings have to be classified as one of the major source of hazardous materials leading to water contamination. This study highlights the processes leading to sulfide oxidation and acid mine drainage (AMD) formation in the active stage of two tailings impoundments located in the southern part of the Apuseni Mountains, in Romania, a well-known region for its long-term gold-silver and metal mining activity. Sampling was undertaken when both impoundments were still in operation in order to assess their actual stage of oxidation and long-term behavior in terms of the potential for acid mine drainage generation. Both tailings have high potential for AMD formation (2.5 and 3.7 wt.% of pyrite equivalent, respectively) with lesser amount of carbonates (5.6 and 3.6 wt.% of calcite equivalent) as neutralization potential (ABA = -55.6 and -85.1 tCaCO(3)/1000 t) and showed clear signs of sulfide oxidation yet during operation. Sequential extraction results indicate a stronger enrichment and mobility of elements in the oxidized tailings: Fe as Fe(III)oxy-hydroxides and oxides (transformation from sulfide minerals, leaching in oxidation zone), Ca mainly in water soluble and exchangeable form where gypsum and calcite are dissolved and higher mobility of Cu for Ribita and Pb for Mialu. Two processes leading to the formation of mine drainage at this stage could be highlighted (1) a neutral Fe(II) plume forming in the impoundment with ferrihydrite precipitation at its outcrop and (2) acid mine drainage seeping in the unsaturated zone of the active dam, leading to the formation of schwertmannite at its outcrop. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Scenarios of land cover change and landslide susceptibility:An example from the buzau subcarpathians, romania

Since 1990 the Subcarpathians in Buzau County, Romania have witnessed substantial socioeconomic changes and resulting changes in the land cover. Influenced by the interplay of poor economic conditions, land ownership reforms, and institutional difficulties, these changes have been difficult to manage, resulting in a dispersal of built-up areas. Even though, the spatial extent of land cover changes has not reached critical levels as similar areas in the Carpathians, our analysis suggests that in the future the area might experience more extreme land cover changes. Moreover, the litho-structural traits and the high relief energy of the Romanian Subcarpathians favored the occurrence of various types of mass movements, imposing different levels of risk to people, buildings and infrastructure. Increase of human influence in form of expansion of built-up areas in the area could therefore result in slope instability and changes in the temporal and spatial patterns of hydro-meteorological hazards. This study shows, that possible future changes in land cover will not have a major influence on hazards, however risk might increase due to the increased value and number of elements at risk

River system recovery following the Novaţ-Roşu tailings dam failure, Maramureş County, Romania

The River Vişeu catchment in Maramureş County, northwestern Romania, has a long history of base and precious metal mining. Between 1994 and 2003 waste from mining activity at Baia Borşa was stored in the Novaţ-Roşu tailings pond in the upper Vişeu catchment. However, in March 2000, the tailings dam failed releasing approximately 100,000 m3 of contaminated water and 20,000 t of mineral-rich solid waste, which was routed downstream through the Rivers Novaţ, Vaser and Vişeu into the River Tisa. Following the accident metal (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) concentrations in river water and river channel sediment were assessed in samples collected annually (July 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003) from 29 sites in the Vişeu catchment, downstream of the tailings pond. Additionally, the speciation of sediment-associated metals was established using a 4-stage sequential extraction procedure (SEP) and Pb isotope analysis (206/204Pb and 207/204Pb) was carried out to establish the provenance of contaminated sediments. Metal concentrations in river water were found to comply with EU directive ‘target’ values within four months of the failure. However, the impact of the spill upon river channel sediments was found to be much longer-lasting, with evidence of the delayed downstream remobilization of tailings stored within the narrow Novaţ valley following the dam failure, as well as continued inputs of contaminated sediment to the River Vişeu from the River Tisla, another mining-affected tributary. Comparison with data from other recent tailings dam failures, indicates that river system recovery rates depend upon local geomorphological conditions, hydrological regimes, and the nature and scale of post-spill clean-up operations